Urbanization and Energy Crisis.

  Source: (ICLEI South Asia, 2007)

Note: Population and Energy Distribution Throughout the World

The figure at left shows the distribution of population in comparison to the distribution of energy across the world.  Clearly, it shows that there is a large imbalance between the percentage of developing countries in the world, which is more than three-quarters of the total population, and the amount of energy those countries use, less than half of the total energy consumption of the world.  

India is currently having issues regarding distribution of their energy resources. Currently, their energy mainly stems from coal-based plants, which has been shown to be very ineffective as far as renewable and clean energy is concerned.  Simultaneously, India is currently facing a surge of urbanization and industrialization across the nation.  This new urbanization could lead to many more issues regarding energy distribution and consumption.  The more urbanized India becomes, the higher the demand will be for easily accessible energy resources.  As India is already struggling with these issues, they will face many more in the future if they do not address the seemingly inevitable crisis facing them in the future. 

One of the issues with urbanization is that it seems to be transforming many developing countries into replicas of the Western World.  In many ways, this is a wonderful thing.  Economically it provides for more opportunities and tends to integrate the nations more smoothly into things like globalized trade, putting them into the mix of the global market place, rather than on the outskirts.  However, there are many negatives that can result from countries becoming “more like the United States.” One of the main problems surrounds energy consumption.  The average person in the world uses an amount equivalent to 2.2 tonnes of coal throughout their lifetime (ICLEI South Asia, 2007).  However, this is distributed across all countries, from the native cultures to the most industrialized.  The disparities between the extremes of this spectrum are astonishing.  In fact, the average American uses about 32 times more energy in their life than the average Indian (ICLEI South Asia, 2007).  As India moves further and further into the process of urbanization, this enormous gap in energy distribution will likely decrease, which will increase the overall energy consumption of the world. 

India is rapidly increasing when it comes to urbanization. Currently, the population is about 30% urban, compared to 1951, when the population was a mere 17% urban (Datta, 2006).  In 2008, India alone accounted for 3.8% of total global consumption of energy (Arora, et al., 2010), yet their country hasn’t even reached 50% urbanization.  Most developed countries are about 70% urban (Datta, 2006).  As India continues to make its way towards becoming a developed country and continues to expand its urban population, the country will undoubtedly increase its energy consumption by large amounts.  Therefore, it is extremely pertinent that India look to renewable resources that benefit not only the environment, but that will also help India in the long run for their growing needs in terms of abundant energy resources.  

One of the benefits of renewable energy is that it doesn’t necessarily depend on a grid system to be effective.  Many rural communities in India are currently seeing plans being implemented that rely heavily on the fact that a central energy infrastructure is unnecessary (Arora, et al., 2010).  In fact, there is a very interesting surge of recycled and renewable energy going through parts of South America and the Philippines that could be well utilized not only by the rural people in India, but also by the slum population (and unless big policy changes are implemented soon, the slum population will continue to grow as people move from rural to urban areas) (Datta, 2006).  The innovation is based on the utilization of liter soda bottles.  They are filled with bleach and water, a hole is cut in the roof of the dwelling and the soda bottle is then secured in this hole.  Thanks to the reaction of the sun and the bleach, this makeshift contraption can give off the equivalent of a 50 watt light bulb.  These “bulbs” are long lasting and very easy to make, an ideal situation for poor and rural people.  For more information on these bulbs and how they are being implemented across the world you can visit this website: http://isanglitrongliwanag.org/ .

While large scale renewable energy efforts are extremely important, small changes are just as crucial.  If individuals can take charge of their own energy needs through practices such as personal water-mills or soda bottle light bulbs, the problems of energy distribution can be largely improved, if not close to solved. 

Works Cited

Arora, D. S., Busche, S., Cowlin, S., Engelmeier, T., Jaritz, H., Milbrandt, A., et al. (2010). Indian Renewable Energy Status Report.

Datta, P. (2006). Urbanisation in India.

ICLEI South Asia. (2007). Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Status in India.

 

Global Phosphorous Issues

Phosphorus is a crucial element in our world.  It is involved in the make-up of our food, our bodies and is even necessary for the creation and functioning of ATP, the “energy food” for our world.  However, the availability of phosphorus naturally is very limited and as we continue to utilize phosphorus and rely on it for things like agriculture and food production, we seem to be nearing a global crisis regarding phosphorus.  In this blog, I will address the issues and potential problems that we face globally as we continue to utilize and deplete our current phosphorus resources. 

Phosphorus (P) is a key component to in fertilizers that are applied to crops.  Combined with many other essential elements such as nitrogen and potassium, phosphorus is necessary for the growth of plants (Cordell, 2009). Because of many agricultural practices (ex. increased tilling of soil, movement and use of organic matter, etc), we have interrupted the natural cycle of P and decreased much of the nutrients that biologically available in the soil.  This calls for increased use of fertilizers, which in turns requires us to find more phosphorous (the majority of it is now found through mining mineral rich rocks), but as the demand for P increases, so do its prices and cost of extraction, while the availability of the element decreases (Cordell, 2009). 

As population increases globally, the demand for more food expands.  Mass production of food has become a trend and the reliance of these practices on fertilizer and the use of P is threatening the limited global supply of phosphorous that is available.  Not only is the global availability of P limited, the distribution of phosphate rock reserves across the world is extremely imbalanced.  Three countries stand at the head of control of these reserves (China, the U.S. and Morocco), which could ultimately tighten the issues surrounding P, since this could cause political problems to intertwine with natural resource scarcity issues (Cordell, 2009).  Morocco singlehandedly controls almost 40% of the global P reserves and while the U.S. currently amounts to 19% of the global P production, more than half of this is coming from one location in the country (Vaccari, 2009).         

Along with the distribution issues of P, the world faces the problem of resource scarcity.  It’s estimated that within only a few decades, the U.S. may completely deplete its own reserves of P; since it is one of three countries that currently controls the reserves of P, this would not only have a domestic impact, but a large global one as well (Vaccari, 2009).  The U.S. would be able to import from those other reserves, however, this would have a definite impact on price fluctuations and would ultimately lead to an increase in the price of food (and anything else that P is being used for).  Therefore, it would have an effect not only on the level of governments and corporations, but also for the individuals.  Even if the U.S. were able to utilize other reserves once its own were depleted, the global supply of P is expected to be completely threatened within a century or so (Vaccari, 2009). These looming issues call for an immediate need for a global focus on improved agricultural practices and better recycling of our current phosphate supplies. 

                Source: Cordell, D. J.-O. (2009). “The story of phosphorus: Global food security and food for thought.” . Global Environmental Change 19, 292–305

Figure 1: In the 1960s, there was a rapid increase in the amount of phosphate rock being utilized for fertilizers. Although the use of both manure and guano/human excreta increased as well, phosphate rocks spiked at a rate that moved far beyond these other two.

 

                As the graph above implies, around the 1960s-70s, the use of phosphate rock in fertilizers shot up tremendously.  This coincides with the time of the Green Revolution.  Although the Green Revolution had many benefits on our food production around the globe (less food shortages, better yields, better quality food), the negative side effects concerning our global consumption of P are clearly shown in the data above. When a global crisis occurs (such as the food shortages that instigated the onset of the Green Revolution), solutions are necessary and the consequences are not always on the forefront.  Similarly to the affect that the Green Revolution had on the consumption of P, we may see another spike in the demand and use of it very soon.  We are currently facing issues with oil reserves and in an effort to reduce the global reliance on petroleum, there is currently a huge push for alternative methods of energy and fuel.  One of the most prominent and supported ideas is the use of ethanol, specifically corn based ethanol.  It could be a huge step forward in the global oil crisis if we could effectively utilize this method on a global level. However, the consequences must be addressed, as well.  If corn based ethanol becomes a common resource, the demand for corn will grow, which would not only have an effect on the price of corn, but also an effect on the amounts of phosphorous we extract and utilize; as we produce more ethanol, we grow larger amounts of corn, and more P is necessary (under the current agricultural practices) (Vaccari, 2009).  This issue could force the world to make some very important decisions in the near future, as oil reserves continue to deplete and we carry on eliminating the natural environment and reserves of their phosphorus base. 

                It is clear to see that these issues are certainly not singular.  You cannot solve one problem, whether locally, nationally or globally, without having an effect on something else.  The costs and benefits of each decision that we make must be weighed against each other in order to find the best global solutions, not only in the present, but also in the long run.  With that said, it is a necessity that we focus more attention on the growing crisis that surrounds our reliance on P.

Works Cited

Cordell, D. J.-O. (2009). “The story of phosphorus: Global food security and food for thought.” . Global Environmental Change 19, 292–305.

Vaccari, D. (2009). “The phosphorus crisis.“. Scientific American .

Water, water everywhere!

In class, we have recently been talking in depth about the importance of water.  As we noted already, it is extremely difficult - if not impossible - to talk about any subject without somehow being able to relate it directly to water.  This reinforces the common idea of, "without water, there is no life." It is, indeed, not an exaggeration.  Since water is so integral to our lives, it is important that we not only focus on clean water for all people, but also accessible and plentiful water.  Currently, this is an issue that is at the forefront in India when it comes to problems affecting the nation’s people as a whole. 

One of the many problems that India faces with its water is the levels of contaminants that the water often contains.  One of these common pollutions is found in the form of nitrates.  This comes most often from things like fertilizers, which were introduced to India largely because of the Green Revolution, a positive revolution in and of itself, but one that comes with many repercussions that Indians are unaware of.  Indeed, it is not just India that seems to be ignorant of the things like the negative of effects of nitrogen. I was completely uneducated on nitrogen and nitrates until I read these articles and I am confident when I say that I am likely not alone in my naivety.  When runoff occurs in areas where agriculture is being treated by fertilizers, nitrogen is converted to nitrate and it is transferred through the water, to the ground and eventually back up either into the crops or evaporated into the atmosphere.  The movement into crops is a huge problem.  Not only is the water and groundwater now affected with nitrates, but the food that Indians will eat also contains nitrates.  When nitrates are ingested through drinking water, they are converted to nitrites which attach to our blood (hemoglobin) and form methaemoglobin, forming methaemoglobinemia (Gupta, Gupta, Chhabra, Eskiocak, Gupta, & Gupta, 2008). 

The presence of nitrates has an enormous potential effect on the health of children, in particularly infants.  It has been shown that overexposure to nitrates can cause asthma, diabetes, problems with the thyroid and adrenal gland, birth defects and many different types of cancer (nitrites have been exposed as a carcinogen) (Gupta, Gupta, Chhabra, Eskiocak, Gupta, & Gupta, 2008).  On top of having such a threat to infants, the unborn child is at risk as well, because nitrates can actually pass through the placental wall and be transferred to the unborn baby when ingested by the mother (Gupta, Gupta, Chhabra, Eskiocak, Gupta, & Gupta, 2008).  Clearly, nitrates pose a major problem to India and its quality of water. It is imperative that steps be taken to implement policies that will better educate the public on the effects of nitrates and the importance of finding ways to reduce their presence.

Another issue that India faces is distribution of its water throughout the country.  The nation is very diverse climate-wise and ecologically.  Many of its states experience large rainfalls during monsoon season, while others remain much drier.  This (and availability of rivers and water basins) results in disparities in the dispersion patterns of water availability.  One of the ways that India has implemented in order to combat this issue is Inter-Basin Water Transfer (IBWT). In simplified terms, IBWT is when water is transferred from a basin with a surplus to a water basin that is experiencing a deficit (Thatte, 2007).  According to Thatte, rainfall over all of India is adequate, however the distribution is not.  The average usable water available each year is about 1300 billion cubic meters, distributed across the entire country (Thatte, 2007).  At the time of this article, India was implementing a plan to increase the IBWT system in the country and to expand it to 30 different IBWT links; some of these have been finished already and many have yet to happen, the goal is to be finished with all of them by 2025 (Thatte, 2007).  Although there are many positives to IBWT, there are also many consequences.  Redistribution of water often causes many communities to have to move, uprooting the economic and cultural structure of those societies and leaving many of them with no work.  Also, if one area of the country has a more highly contaminated water system than another (say, an area that is more agriculturally based) it would be transferred to the other areas during the process of IBWT.  This could introduce many unexpected problems. 

Overall however, if precautions are kept in mind and measures are taken to ensure that the water quality can be improved, the long term effects that IBWT could have on Indian society are extremely positive. 

Works Cited

Gupta, S. K., Gupta, R., Chhabra, S., Eskiocak, S., Gupta, A., & Gupta, R. (2008). Health issues related to N pollution in water and air. Current Science Vol. 94, No. 11 , 1469-1476.

Thatte, C. (2007). Inter-Basin Water Transfer (IBWT) for the Augmentation of Water Resources in India: A Review of Needs, Plans, Status and Prospects. Water Resources Development, Vol. 23. No. 4 , 709-725.

Maternal Health: A complicated issue.

The factors that play into maternal health are far more complex than I was ever aware.  I'm ashamed to say that I think my naivety was influenced by the fact that I viewed this issue through the eyes of a "sheltered Westerner," assuming that the main factors were lack of financial support and lack of smart decisions.  In the past week I have come to the realization that this is a very simplified view of the issue.  In fact, the state of maternal health is dependent upon many interwoven and complicated issues.  It is far too much of a generalization to say that poverty alone is the reason a woman might not receive proper health care.  Rather, the intricacies within poverty are the causes: inaccessible and sparse clinics, lack of sanitation and clean water, improper nutrition, lack of education, etc.  The fact that the problem can be broken down so directly is simultaneously threatening and encouraging.  It reveals the many different factors that affect maternal health, which might initially seem discouraging.  However, it also allows for specific targets and goals, which will help to solve the issue of maternal health in the long run.

The state of India’s health care for women, in particular when they are in the midst of their pregnancy, is lacking and needs improvement, especially in poorer rural areas where, ironically, it seems to be needed most.  India has three different levels of care across the nation: central, state and local.  The local level is the level that deals with the direct health care services and, in rural areas, there is only one clinic for every 20,000 to 30,000 people (Barua, 2003).  These facilities are not what westerners might assume hospitals to be like.  In fact, each care center only has about 14 people on staff, including the administrative staff and the drivers for the vehicles (although emergency vehicles are not always available) (Barua, 2003).  Through the articles I have read both in class and outside of class, it is clear to see that the availability of proper health care is one of the biggest and most looming issues in Indian societies. When there is a lack of qualified health professionals, the risk of having complications occur before, during or after a pregnancy is even higher.  In a country where there are already so many other factors affecting maternal health, it would seem that proper health care would be the first and most immediate priority. 

Environmental factors have a much greater effect on maternal health than I ever believed was the case.  As technology in agriculture has increased, most areas have also seen a rise in the amount of environmental degradation that is apparent.  Many areas have seen things such as contaminated water as a result of an increase in fertilizer use (Agarwal, 1997).  Water sanitation plays a large part in the health of the people, and women who drink unsanitary water will obviously be less healthy than those who have access to clean water.  This threatens not only the health of the mother, but also the health of her children.  One of the biggest issues that I see with something like water sanitation is that it is a result of many positive improvements in the community.  Technological advances in rural communities are a good thing because they help the area to grow more economically and be able to keep up with the globalization that is surrounding them.  However, proper use of these advancements needs to be taught as well.  You can’t implement new ideas into a society without educating the community on the potential repercussions and giving them the knowledge and ability to combat those negative impacts.   

The articles I have read recently have shown me that improvement in the arena of maternal health in India could be a long and arduous process.  There are so many influences on the single issue, however, fixing or making adjustments to one could very well make progress with another.  For example, if policies are put into place for better education, it could cover education of women on their own health, education of the health professionals and it might also increase a community’s awareness of how they are affecting the environment around them.  All of these things would have positive effects on women’s health in India.  In turn, with better education it is likely that the economy would be better stimulated, increasing the overall wealth of the community and therefore allowing or more allocation of money for things like water sanitation and proper health care facilities and systems.  My point is, there may be many factors that influence maternal health, but if changes are made that affect one or two of those factors, it is inevitable that most other influencing issues would see improvement as well.  In fact, it is a cycle.  Currently, maternal health in India is in a cycle of neglect and negativity, but with just a few implemented changes, the cycle can be turned the opposite way, to one of positive growth.

Works Cited

Agarwal, B. (1997). Gender, Environment, and Poverty Interlinks Regional Variations and Temporal Shifts in Rural India, 1971-91. World Development 25(1) , 23-52.

Barua, A. W. (2003). Implementing Reproductive and Child Health Services in Rural Maharashtra, India: a Pragmatic Approach. Reproductive Health Matters, 11(21) , 140-149.